Angaben zur Quelle [Bearbeiten]
| Autor | John Patrick Philbin, II |
| Titel | Strategic Decision-making. Group Behavior, and Public Relations Strategies |
| Jahr | 2005 |
| Anmerkung | Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2005 |
| URL | https://drum.lib.umd.edu/handle/1903/2732 - https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/2732/umi-umd-2269.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |
Literaturverz. |
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| Fußnoten | no |
| Fragmente | 23 |
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| [CHAPTER V]
[METHODOLOGY] [...] [...] Choosing an appropriate method of inquiry is essential to make sure that the knowledge gained from scientific research is credible and advances what is already known in a disciplined, replicable manner. The following discussion offers a rationale as to why a qualitative approach was the most suitable research design for this study. [A. Qualitative Methodology] According to Marshall and Rossman (1995), quantitative methodology, the traditional schema of scientific inquiry, is appropriate when data can be obtained from experiments, the variables are known and unambiguous, and processes are relatively simple. On the other hand, qualitative methodology provides the flexibility to obtain data that cannot be acquired from experiments because of ethical or practical reasons, when the variables may be unknown or ambiguous, and/or processes are complex. Miles and Huberman (1994) described the strengths of qualitative data. First, “they focus on naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings, so that we have a [strong handle on what ‘real life’ is like” (p. 10).] Marshal, [sic] C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
[page 114]
CHAPTER III Methodology Introduction Choosing an appropriate method of inquiry is fundamental to ensuring that the knowledge gained from scientific research is credible and advances what we know in a disciplined, replicable manner. The following discussion outlines why a qualitative approach was the most suitable research design for this study. [...] According to Marshall and Rossman (1995), quantitative methodology, the traditional schema of scientific inquiry, is appropriate when data can be obtained from experiments, the variables are known and unambiguous, and processes are relatively simple. On the other hand, qualitative approaches provide the flexibility to acquire data that cannot be obtained from experiments because of ethical or practical reasons, the variables may be unknown or ambiguous, and processes are complex. [page 115] [...] Miles and Huberman (1994) made several observations on the strengths of qualitative data. First, “they focus on naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings, so that we have a strong handle on what ‘real life’ is like” (p. 10). Marshal, [sic] C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
The true source is not given. The misspelling of an author's name is faithfully copied. |
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| [First, “they focus on naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings, so that we have a] strong handle on what ‘real life’ is like” (p. 10). In other words, data are usually collected in relatively close proximity to the phenomenon under study. Second, the data have the potential to reveal complex constructs because of the “richness and holism” that exists through lived experiences and the various meanings people place on events, processes and structures. Third, qualitative data allow researchers to explore new areas and test hypotheses. Last, they allow researchers to “supplement, validate, explain, illuminate, or reinterpret quantitative data gathered from the same setting” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 10).
Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggested four constructs that would help frame assumptions of qualitative research. These constructs are: credibility, which demonstrates how variables are identified and the study is conducted; transferability, which deals with how well the findings can be applied to other contexts, regardless of investigator; dependability, which addresses the way researchers explain changing conditions and research design; and confirmability, which is the degree to which the findings can be confirmed by other researchers. These constructs—credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability—can be used to assess the veracity of research. Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
Lincoln and Guba (1985) offered four constructs that help frame assumptions of qualitative research. These include credibility, which attests to how variables are identified and the study is conducted; transferability, which addresses how well the findings can be applied to other contexts, regardless of investigator; dependability, or the way in which researchers account for changing conditions and research design; and confirmability, or the degree to which the findings can be confirmed by other researchers. These constructs—credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability—can be used to assess the veracity of research.
Miles and Huberman (1994) made several observations on the strengths of qualitative data. First, “they focus on naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings, so that we have a strong handle on what ‘real life’ is like” (p. 10). In other words, data are usually collected in relatively close proximity to the phenomenon under study. Second, the data have the potential to reveal complex constructs because of the “richness and holism” that exists through lived experiences and the various meanings people place on events, processes and structures. Third, qualitative data allow researchers to explore new areas and test hypotheses. Last, they allow researchers to “supplement, validate, explain, illuminate, or reinterpret quantitative data gathered from the same setting” (p. 10). Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
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| Because this study relied on a qualitative research design, the researcher feels the need to briefly discuss the philosophy of qualitative research; criteria for considering an appropriate research design, including general ethical concerns; and several potential qualitative data collection methods such as interviewing and ethnography, including their strengths and weaknesses. The researcher concludes by explaining the approach that was used in this study. A general description of the specific procedures and analytic techniques is also addressed.
A.1. Philosophy of Qualitative Research Denzin and Lincoln (1994) pointed out that the field of qualitative research “is defined primarily by a series of essential tensions, contradictions, and hesitations” (p. ix). Plowman (1995) observed that Geertz (1973) argued that the aim of qualitative research was to “enlarge the universe of human discourse through searching for meaning in human existence” (Plowman, 1995, p. 103). Guba and Lincoln (1994) offered an excellent synopsis of four of the competing paradigms in qualitative research. These paradigms represent the basic worldviews held by researchers. They fundamentally vary on issues of ontology, which addresses the “form and nature of reality”; epistemology, which addresses “the nature of the relationship of between the knower or would-be knower and [what can be known”; and methodology, which addresses “how can the inquirer (would-be knower) goes about finding out whatever he or she believes can be known” (p. 108).] Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage. Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books. Plowman, K. D. (1995). Congruence between public relations and conflict resolution: Negotiating power in the organization . [sic] Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, MD. |
[page 115]
Because this study relied on a qualitative research design, I must touch briefly on the philosophy of qualitative research; criteria for considering an appropriate research design, including general ethical concerns; and several potential qualitative [page 116] data collection methods such as interviewing and ethnography, including their strengths and weaknesses. I conclude by articulating the approach that was used in this study and a brief discussion of the four specific decision events that were analyzed. A general description of the specific procedures and analytic techniques is also addressed. Philosophy of Qualitative Research Denzin and Lincoln (1994) observed that the field of qualitative research “is defined primarily by a series of essential tensions, contradictions, and hesitations” (p. ix). Plowman (1996) [sic] noted that Geertz (1973) argued that the aim of qualitative research was to “enlarge the universe of human discourse through searching for meaning in human existence” (p. 103). Guba and Lincoln (1994) provided an excellent synopsis of four of the competing paradigms in qualitative research. These paradigms represent the basic worldviews held by researchers. They fundamentally differ on issues of ontology, which addresses the “form and nature of reality;” epistemology, which addresses “the nature of the relationship of between the knower or would-be knower and what can be known;” and methodology, which addresses “how can the inquirer (would-be knower) goes about finding out whatever he or she believes can be known” (p. 108). Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage. Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books. Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105-117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Plowman, K. D. (1995). Congruence between public relations and conflict resolution: Negotiating power in the organization . Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, MD. |
The true source is not given. There is no Guba and Lincoln 1994 in the references, only a Lincoln and Guba 1995. The unpublished dissertation Plowman 1995 is only available from the library of the University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA. The semicolons in Philbin 2005 are correctly set before the closing quotation marks and incorrectly moved to after them in Dsi. |
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| [They fundamentally vary on issues of ontology, which addresses the “form and nature of reality”; epistemology, which addresses “the nature of the relationship of between the knower or would-be knower and] what can be known”; and methodology, which addresses “how can the inquirer (would-be knower) goes about finding out whatever he or she believes can be known” (p. 108).
Guba and Lincoln (1994) argued that positivism has been the dominant paradigm in the discourse of the physical and social sciences “for some 400 years” (p. 108). Researchers from this persuasion believe in “naïve realism” and in the existence of a “real reality” that can be apprehended (p. 109). Moreover, they believe that their findings gathered through quantitative experimental and manipulative approaches and verification of hypotheses reveals findings that are “true” (p. 109). The aim of their research is to explain, predict, and control (Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 112). According to Guba and Lincoln (1994), postpositivists attribute to critical realism where reality is real but only “imperfectly and probabilistically apprehendable” (p. 109). Inquirers rely on modified experimental or manipulative and critical multiplism approaches to falsify hypotheses that result in findings that are probably true. Postpositivists may rely on qualitative approaches to scientific inquiry. Like positivists, they aim to explain, predict, and control (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Guba and Lincoln (1994) also observed that critical theorists believe in historical realism in which reality is “shaped by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic, and gender values” (p. 109). Furthermore, they said that critical theorists rely on dialogic or dialectical approaches that reveal “value-mediated findings” (p. 109). Their purpose is to critique and transform through restitution and emancipation. Constructivists argue that realities are relative and locally constructed. They rely on hermeneutical or dialectical approaches to reveal “created findings” (Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 109). They seek to understand and reconstruct reality. |
[page 116]
They fundamentally differ on issues of ontology, which addresses the “form and nature of reality;” epistemology, which addresses “the nature of the relationship of between the knower or would-be knower and what can be known;” and methodology, which addresses “how can the inquirer (would-be knower) goes about finding out whatever he or she believes can be known” (p. 108). Guba and Lincoln (1994) noted that positivism has been the dominant paradigm in the discourse of the physical and social sciences “for some 400 years” (p. 108). Researchers from this persuasion believe in “naïve realism” and in the existence of a “real reality” that can be apprehended (p. 109). Further, they believe that their findings acquired through quantitative experimental and manipulative [page 117] approaches and verification of hypotheses reveals findings that are “true” (p. 109). The aim of their research is to explain, predict and control (p. 112). According to Guba and Lincoln (1994), postpositivists ascribe to critical realism where reality is real but only “imperfectly and probabilistically apprehendable” (p. 109). Inquirers rely on modified experimental or manipulative and critical multiplism approaches to falsify hypotheses that result in findings that are probably true. Postpositivists may rely on qualitative approaches to scientific inquiry. Like positivists, they aim to explain, predict, and control. Guba and Lincoln (1994) also noted that critical theorists believe in historical realism in which reality is “shaped by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic, and gender values” (p. 109). In addition, the scholars said that critical theorists rely on dialogic or dialectical approaches that reveal “value-mediated findings” (p. 109). Their purpose is to critique and transform through restitution and emancipation. Constructivists argue that realities are relative and locally constructed. They rely on hermeneutical or dialectical approaches to reveal “created findings” (Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 109). They seek to understand and reconstruct reality. Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105-117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
The true source is not given. Although mentioned by name six times on this page and once on the previous page, there is no Guba and Lincoln 1994 listed in the references, only a Lincoln & Guba 1995. |
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| As Plowman (1995) wrote, “Qualitative research is holistic in that it looks at people and settings as part of a larger picture. Researchers strive to understand people from their own frames of reference and value all perspectives of a given situation. This type of research has the ability to use the participants’ own language and symbols in context of the whole picture, not as separate variables” (p. 106).
B. Research Design Marshall and Rossman (1994) [sic] argued that research strategy is very much linked to the purpose of the study. When the purpose of the research is “to investigate little understood phenomena, to identify/discover important variables, [or] to generate hypotheses for further research,” then a case study or field study is an appropriate strategy and participant observation and interviewing are important data collection techniques (p. 41). Moreover, qualitative studies allow researchers to stress “the importance of context, setting, and participants’ frames of reference” (p. 44). Selecting the appropriate method is a task that all researchers hope to learn. In this study, it was especially important to understand constructs and contexts as understood by the participants. Plowman (1995) identified two screening criteria that guide selection of the appropriate method: “(1) the complexity and depth of the topic and (2) feedback, meaning the importance of speaking individually to participants” (p. 112). Discussing research settings, populations, and phenomena, Marshall and Rossman (1994) [sic] suggested: “The ideal site is where (1) entry is possible; (2) there is a high probability that a rich mix of the processes, people, programs, interactions, and structures of interest are present; (3) the researcher is likely to be able to build trusting [relations with the participants in the study; and (4) data quality and credibility of the study are reasonably assured” (p. 51).] Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Plowman, K. D. (1995). Congruence between public relations and conflict resolution: Negotiating power in the organization . [sic] Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, MD. |
[page 117]
Plowman (1996) [sic] observed: “Qualitative research is holistic in that it looks at people and settings as part of a larger picture. Researchers strive to understand people from their own frames of reference and value all perspectives of a given situation. This type of research has the ability to use the participants’ own language and symbols in context of the whole picture, not as separate variables” (p. 106). [page 118] Considerations in Research Design Selecting the appropriate method is a function of what researchers hope to learn. In this study, it was particularly important to understand constructs and contexts as understood by the participants. Plowman (1996) identified two screening criteria that guide selecting the appropriate method: “(1) the complexity and depth of the topic and (2) feedback, meaning the importance of speaking individually to participants” (p. 112). Marshall and Rossman (1994) [sic] argued that research strategy is inextricably linked to the purpose of the study. Where the purpose of the research is exploratory: “to investigate little understood phenomena, to identify/discover important variables, [page 119] [or] to generate hypotheses for further research,” then a case study or field study is an appropriate strategy and participant observation and interviewing are important data collection techniques (p. 41). Furthermore, qualitative studies allow researchers to stress “the importance of context, setting, and participants’ frames of reference” (p. 44). Discussing research settings, populations and phenomena, Marshall and Rossman (1994) [sic] suggested: “The ideal site is where (1) entry is possible; (2) there is a high probability that a rich mix of the processes, people, programs, interactions, and structures of interest are present; (3) the researcher is likely to be able to build trusting relations with the participants in the study; and (4) data quality and credibility of the study are reasonably assured” (p. 51). Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Plowman, K. D. (1995). Congruence between public relations and conflict resolution: Negotiating power in the organization . [sic] Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, MD. |
The true source is not given. Philbin 2005 summarized the text from the first row of a table in the given source. This text, missing one word, is found with the same wording in Dsi.
Marshall & Rossman 1995, p. 41, Table 3.1 |
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| [“The ideal site is where (1) entry is possible; (2) there is a high probability that a rich mix of the processes, people, programs, interactions, and structures of interest are present; (3) the researcher is likely to be able to build trusting] relations with the participants in the study; and (4) data quality and credibility of the study are reasonably assured” (p. 51).
This research sought to understand the impacts of the feminization of the public relations industry in Indonesia. Thus, entry into public relations agencies and various types of organizations was necessary to explore both the complexity and richness of the various phenomena in play. In addition, it was necessary to establish trust and credibility with the public relations practitioners the researcher interviewed in order to acquire and collect data for analysis. As a public relations educator, the researcher possessed the knowledge, familiarity, and ability to gain access to the research setting. However, these strengths also possessed ethical concerns that are addressed at the end of this chapter. There are basic ethical instructions in the literature when it comes to human subjects. Locke, Spirduso, and Silverman (1993) suggested the following when dealing with human subjects: In general, participants should be informed of what is being investigated, their role, and the demands on them that will be required. Participants should understand what protocols are in place to protect confidentiality. Finally, participants should know to whom questions or concerns should be directed and offered the opportunity to receive study results, as appropriate (p. 31). [Participants of this research study received an email from the researcher, giving a thorough explanation of the purposes of this study.] This email outlined procedures and the potential risks and/or benefits from participating in the research, including the right to withdraw their consent during any point in the inquiry without reprisal. Locke, L.F., Spirduso, W.W., Silverman, L.J. (1993). Proposals that work. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. |
[page 119]
“The ideal site is where (1) entry is possible; (2) there is a high probability that a rich mix of the processes, people, programs, interactions, and structures of interest are present; (3) the researcher is likely to be able to build trusting relations with the participants in the study; and (4) data quality and credibility of the study are reasonably assured” (p. 51). My research sought to understand how executives made strategic decisions under different conditions of perceived power dispersion. Thus, entry into existing organizational processes was necessary to explore both the complexity and richness of the various phenomena in play. In addition, it was necessary to establish trust and credibility with the executives I interviewed in order to acquire and collect data for analysis. As a member of the Coast Guard, I possessed the knowledge, familiarity and ability to gain access to the research setting. However, these strengths also possessed ethical concerns that are addressed at the end of this chapter. There are general ethical prescriptions in the literature when dealing with human subjects. Locke, Spirduso, and Silverman (1993) offered the following prescriptions when dealing with human subjects. In general, participants should be informed of what is being investigated, their role, and the demands on them that will [page 120] be required. Participants should understand what protocols are in place to protect confidentiality. They should be offered a document for their signature that confirms their consent without unnecessary influence and the opportunity to ask questions. This “contract” should outline procedures and the potential risks and/or benefits from participating in the research, including the right to withdraw their consent during any point in the inquiry without reprisal. Finally, participants should know to whom questions or concerns should be directed and offered the opportunity to receive study results, as appropriate (p. 31). |
The true source is not given. The text is adapted in Dsi by replacing "member of the Coast Guard" with "public relations educator", "managers" with "public relations practitioners", and "contract" with "email". There is no ethical discussion at the end of Dsi as announced, although there is one in Philbin 2005. Philbin 2005 does not have an entry for Locke, Spirduso, & Silverman 1993 in the references. |
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| Having discussed some of the fundamental issues with respect to the philosophy of qualitative research and established general criteria for the methodological approach, the following discussion considered several types of interviews and other methodological approaches that could have been used to collect the data for this research.
C. Interviews Interviews represented one of several approaches to collecting qualitative data that could have been used for this study. H. Rubin and I. Rubin (1995) claimed that [qualitative interviews allow researchers to understand experiences and reconstruct events that are unfamiliar.] Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (1995). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
Having discussed some of the fundamental issues with respect to the philosophy of qualitative research and established general criteria for the methodological approach, the following discussion considered several types of interviews and other methodological approaches that could have been used to collect the data for this research.
Interviews Interviews represented one of several approaches to collecting qualitative data that could have been used for this study. H. Rubin and I. Rubin (1995) noted that qualitative interviews allow researchers to understand experiences and reconstruct events that are unfamiliar. Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (1995). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
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| [H. Rubin and I. Rubin (1995) claimed that] qualitative interviews allow researchers to understand experiences and reconstruct events that are unfamiliar. They also argued that interviews require an understanding of culture, recognition that interviewers were participants, and an acknowledgement that interviewers give voice to those interviewed.
Plowman (1995) offered a practical decision matrix that captured the advantages of interviewing in relation to other qualitative methods. In short, he argued that interviewing offered an individual perspective, could be theory driven and triangulated, and performed with limited time and funds. In addition, interviewing allowed the timely collection of large amounts of data that could be validated. Denzin and Lincoln (1994) argued that triangulation was important especially to qualitative methodology because the validity of qualitative research might be challenged because of the constructivist nature of the data collection methods. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage. Plowman, K. D. (1995). Congruence between public relations and conflict resolution: Negotiating power in the organization . [sic] Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, MD. Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (1995). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
[page 120]
H. Rubin and I. Rubin (1995) noted that qualitative interviews allow researchers to understand experiences and reconstruct events that are unfamiliar. They also argued that interviews require an understanding of culture, recognition that interviewers were participants, and an acknowledgement that interviewers give voice to those interviewed. Plowman (1995) offered a practical decision matrix that captured the advantages of interviewing in relation to other qualitative methods. In short, he [page 121] argued that interviewing offered an individual perspective, could be theory driven and triangulated, and performed with limited time and funds. In addition, interviewing allowed the timely collection of large amounts of data that could be validated. Denzin and Lincoln (1994) argued that triangulation was important especially to qualitative methodology because the validity of qualitative research might be challenged because of the constructivist nature of the data collection methods. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage. Plowman, K. D. (1995). Congruence between public relations and conflict resolution: Negotiating power in the organization .[sic] Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, MD. Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (1995). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
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| Nevertheless, there are disadvantages of interviewing as well, according to Marshall and Rossman (1995). Data might be misunderstood or misinterpreted, results might be difficult to replicate, and data validity rests heavily on the participant’s truthfulness.
The purpose of the following discussion is to define and describe several types of interviews that were considered for this research. In addition, consideration was given to the ethical implications of each type of interview. The researcher concludes with a summary discussion of the interviewing method she used and how she identified study [participants.] Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
There are disadvantages of interviewing as well, according to Marshall and Rossman (1995). Data might be misunderstood or misinterpreted, results might be difficult to replicate, and data validity rests heavily on the participant’s truthfulness.
The purpose of the following discussion is to define and describe several types of interviews that were considered for this research. In addition, consideration was given to the ethical implications of each type of interview. I conclude with a summary discussion of the interviewing method I used, how I identified study participants, and which four decision events were used for this study. Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
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| [The researcher concludes with a summary discussion of the interviewing method she used and how she identified study] participants. The researcher concludes with a review of the procedures and ethical concerns.
C.1. Long Interview Long interviews possess unique characteristics that help the researcher understand and determine meaning as understood by participants. This requires the researcher to invest adequate time in interviewing so that the phenomenon of interest will emerge through the analysis phase of a study. Long interviews require extensive, thoughtful preparation to avoid amassing unnecessary data while acquiring critical data that will reveal answers to the questions sought by the researcher. Thorough preparation also provides the best return of valuable information while minimizing the time required of participants. Critically important to long interviews are issues of culture and, as McCracken (1988) observed, shared meaning. The goal of long interviews is to understand the phenomenon as the participant understands it. Unlike unstructured ethnographic interviews, long interviews provide focus for the researcher. Because confidentiality is associated with this methodology, researchers gain access to important issues that full disclosure or identification of participants would likely inhibit. Although long interviews provide structure, they allow for the emergence of variables and concepts that may not be known to the researcher at the beginning of the inquiry. Additionally, research may be conducted within a much shorter time frame than traditional ethnographic research requires. McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
[page 121]
I conclude with a summary discussion of the interviewing method I used, how I identified study participants, and which four decision events were used for this study. I conclude with a review of the procedures and ethical concerns. Long interview Long interviews possess unique characteristics that help the researcher understand and determine meaning as understood by participants. This requires the researcher to invest adequate time in interviewing so that the phenomenon of interest will emerge through the analysis phase of a study. Long interviews require extensive, thoughtful preparation to avoid amassing unnecessary data while acquiring critical data that will reveal answers to the questions sought by the researcher. Thorough preparation also provides the best return of valuable information while minimizing [page 122] the time required of participants. Critically important to long interviews are issues of culture and, as McCracken (1988) observed, shared meaning. The goal of long interviews is to understand the phenomenon as the participant understands it. Unlike unstructured ethnographic interviews, long interviews provide focus for the researcher. Because confidentiality is associated with this methodology, researchers gain access to important issues that full disclosure or identification of participants would likely inhibit. Although long interviews provide structure, they allow for the emergence of variables and concepts that may not be known to the researcher at the beginning of the inquiry. Additionally, research may be conducted within a much shorter time frame than traditional ethnographic research requires. McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. |
The true source is not given. |
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| Though no specified time lengths for long interviews are mandated, the information gleaned from the literature review indicates that up to eight hours may be needed to collect the necessary data. Such length in interviews may require that several interviews be scheduled. By allowing time between interviews, the researcher can review the data and follow up to clarify ambiguities. Hon (1997) observed that the goal is to understand the meaning of concepts, categories, terms, relationships, and assumptions as the respondent understands them in his or her view and experience in the world.
Researchers who use long interviews to acquire data are interested in depth rather than breadth. Whether this is accomplished in two hours or eight hours depends on the researchers’ ability to accurately reflect the phenomenon as determined by participants. The resulting shared meaning allows researchers to determine the presence of cultural patterns, categories, characteristics, or assumptions. Several ethical implications are associated with long interviews. Researchers are commonly understood to be instruments of data collection and analyses in qualitative research. McCracken (1988) identified a number of important issues that must be considered. Researchers working in their own culture must be vigilant to the very real problem of seeing familiar data in unfamiliar ways. By allowing participants to answer questions and prompting them to use their own terms, researchers reduce the potential for interpretation that frequently occurs with active listening. Active listening encourages researchers to repeat back words and phrases to discover hidden meanings of language. A healthy distance must be maintained between researchers and subjects. Like researchers who must see the familiar in unfamiliar ways, so must participants. McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
[page 122]
Though no specified time lengths for long interviews are mandated, the information gleaned from the literature review indicates that up to eight hours may be needed to collect the necessary data. Such length in interviews may require that several interviews be scheduled. By allowing time between interviews, the researcher can review the data and follow up to clarify ambiguities. Hon (1997) observed that the goal is to understand the meaning of concepts, categories, terms, relationships, and assumptions as the respondent understands them in his or her view and experience in the world. Researchers who use long interviews to acquire data are interested in depth rather than breadth. Whether this is accomplished in two hours or eight hours depends on the researchers’ ability to accurately reflect the phenomenon as determined by participants. The resulting shared meaning allows researchers to [page 123] determine the presence of cultural patterns, categories, characteristics, or assumptions. Several ethical implications are associated with long interviews. Researchers are commonly understood to be instruments of data collection and analyses in qualitative research. McCracken (1988) identified a number of important issues that must be considered. Researchers working in their own culture must be vigilant to the very real problem of seeing familiar data in unfamiliar ways. By allowing participants to answer questions and prompting them to use their own terms, researchers reduce the potential for interpretation that frequently occurs with active listening. Active listening encourages researchers to repeat back words and phrases to discover hidden meanings of language. A healthy distance must be maintained between researchers and subjects. Like researchers who must see the familiar in unfamiliar ways, so must participants. McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. |
The true source is not given. There is no Hon 1997 in the references of either Dsi or Philbin 2005, Dsi only lists a Hon 1995 and a number of works co-autored by Hon, none of which are from 1997. |
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| Researchers must help participants to distance themselves from the familiar to articulate what lies beneath the surface of a belief or behavior. Such self-reflection possesses significant ethical implications. For example, emotional harm might result when participants are asked to reflect on uncomfortable issues relevant to the research. Another legitimate reason that necessitates distance between researchers and participants is the nature of researchers’ roles. Arguably, one of the differences between voyeur and scientist lies in intent. It is important to understand that professional curiosity to fully understand what phenomena motivate scientists.
Confidentiality of participants must be protected to allow for as complete disclosure as possible. Researchers must be clear about the risks of interviews as well as the benefits. For some participants, questions may evoke surprise, embarrassment, or anger; for others, questions may possess a cathartic quality or intellectual dimension. Above all, researchers must first do no harm. During interviews, researchers must listen carefully for clues that require further probing. McCracken (1988) identified some of these potential issues as topic avoidance, distortion, misunderstanding, and even incomprehension. He also suggested several technical considerations such as tape recording, transcription, and use of the computer to aid in the collection and analysis of the data. C.2. In-depth Interview Marshall and Rossman (1995) suggested that in-depth interviews are conversations designed to explore general topics to discover meaning from the participant’s perspective. In doing so, researchers should consider the responses as [framed by participants.] Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
[page 123]
Researchers must help participants to distance themselves from the familiar to articulate what lies beneath the surface of a belief or behavior. Such self-reflection possesses significant ethical implications. For example, emotional harm might result when participants are asked to reflect on uncomfortable issues relevant to the research. Another legitimate reason that necessitates distance between researchers and participants is the nature of researchers’ roles. Arguably, one of the differences between voyeur and scientist lies in intent. It is important to understand that professional curiosity to fully understand phenomena motivates scientists. Confidentiality of participants must be protected to allow for as complete disclosure as possible. Researchers must be clear about the risks of interviews as well [page 124] as the benefits. For some participants, questions may evoke surprise, embarrassment, or anger; for others, questions may possess a cathartic quality or intellectual dimension. Above all, researchers must first do no harm. During interviews, researchers must listen carefully for clues that require further probing. McCracken (1988) identified some of these potential issues as topic avoidance, distortion, misunderstanding, and even incomprehension. He also suggested several technical considerations such as tape recording, transcription, and use of the computer to aid in the collection and analysis of the data. In-depth interview Marshall and Rossman (1995) suggested that in-depth interviews are conversations designed to explore general topics to discover meaning from the participant’s perspective. In doing so, researchers should consider the responses as framed by participants. Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. |
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| [In doing so, researchers should consider the responses as] framed by participants. Although Marshall and Rossman made no distinction between in-depth and long interviews, McCracken (1988) considered in-depth interviews to be primarily concerned with participants’ affective attributes where long interviews were more focused on shared categories and assumptions.
As noted previously with all interviews, in-depth interviews also possess the ability to acquire a significant amount of data quickly. Researchers can seek clarification during the interview and uncover the significance people place on events and experiences in everyday life. Cooperation of participants is necessary for researchers to acquire the appropriate data. Interviewers must also possess fine listening skills that permit them to interact, frame, and diplomatically probe participants. In the end, researchers should evoke the necessary data that frequently lie beneath the surface of routine responses. Fontana and Frey (1994) pointed out the importance of never taking anything for granted in interviews. Ethical implications of in-depth interviews are similar to those already discussed. In addition, Fontana and Frey (1994) noted that traditional concerns focus on informed consent, privacy, and protection from harm. Although Wolcott (1995) disagreed, Miles and Huberman (1994) argued that interviews must necessarily violate the trust and privacy of respondents. Use of technology must be disclosed initially so participants are informed about the use of recording devices. As long as participants understand and consent to the terms set forth in research protocols and researchers remain within the established ground rules, the risk of violating agreements is minimized. Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (1994). Interviewing: The art of science. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 361-377). London: Sage. McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
[page 124]
In doing so, researchers should consider the responses as framed by participants. Although Marshall and Rossman made no distinction between depth and long interviews, McCracken (1988) considered depth interviews to be primarily concerned with participants’ affective attributes where long interviews were more focused on shared categories and assumptions. As noted previously with all interviews, depth interviews also possess the ability to acquire a significant amount of data quickly. Researchers can seek clarification during the interview and uncover the significance people place on events and experiences in everyday life. Cooperation of participants is necessary for researchers to acquire the appropriate data. Interviewers must also possess fine listening skills that permit them to interact, frame, and diplomatically probe participants. In the end, researchers should evoke the necessary data that frequently [page 125] lie beneath the surface of routine responses. Fontana and Frey (1994) pointed out the importance of never taking anything for granted in interviews. Ethical implications of depth interviews are similar to those already discussed. In addition, Fontana and Frey (1994) noted that traditional concerns focus on informed consent, privacy, and protection from harm. Although Wolcott (1995) disagreed, Miles and Huberman (1994) argued that interviews must necessarily violate the trust and privacy of respondents. Use of technology must be disclosed initially so participants are informed about the use of recording devices. As long as participants understand and consent to the terms set forth in research protocols and researchers remain within the established ground rules, the risk of violating agreements is minimized. McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Wolcott, H. F. (1995). The art of fieldwork. London: AltaMira Press. |
The true source is not given. There is no Wolcott 1995 in the reference section of Dsi. Fontana & Frey 1994 is not listed in the reference section of Philbin 2005. |
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| C.3. Elite Interview
Elite interviews recognize the position or experience participants possess that warrant special treatment or consideration. They differ from other types of interviews in several ways. Dexter (1970) suggested participants’ elite status qualified them to define the situation of interest. Two characteristics are common with elites: participation and time. As a result, interviewees are encouraged to structure the account of the situation. Finally, interviewees are left to describe what they perceive as relevant. Unlike focused interviewing where researchers define the area of interest, ask the questions, and seek answers within a set of boundaries, elite interviewers frequently desire that participants teach them what the problem is, what questions should be answered, and what the situation demands. In addition to the special status of elites, data must be examined differently. Dexter (1970) observed that surveys deal with deviation statistically. Frequently, the goal is to understand the norm, the typical response. However, with elite respondents who are better informed, deviations may necessitate a revision or extension, or a new paradigm. Hirsch (1995) reinforced the observation that disparities in information and perception often exist between upper and lower levels in organizations. Thus, responses from elite [interviewees must be framed properly to understand the value of their observations and contributions.] Dexter, L. A. (1970). Elite and specialized interviewing. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Hirsch, Paul M. 1995. Tales from the field: Learning from researchers’ accounts. In R. Hertz & J. B. Imber (Eds.). Studying elites using qualitative methods. (pp. 40-64). London: Sage Publications. |
[page 125]
Elite interview Elite interviews recognize the position or experience participants possess that warrant special treatment or consideration. They differ from other types of interviews in several ways. Dexter (1970) suggested participants’ elite status qualified them to define the situation of interest. Two characteristics are common with elites: participation and time. As a result, interviewees are encouraged to structure the account of the situation. Finally, interviewees are left to describe what they perceive as relevant. Unlike focused interviewing where researchers define the area of interest, ask the questions, and seek answers within a set of boundaries, elite interviewers frequently desire that participants teach them what the problem is, what questions should be answered, and what the situation demands. [page 126] In addition to the special status of elites, data must be examined differently. Dexter (1970) observed that surveys deal with deviation statistically. Frequently, the goal is to understand the norm, the typical response. However, with elite respondents who are better informed, deviations may necessitate a revision or extension, or a new paradigm. Hirsch (1995) reinforced the observation that disparities in information and perception often exist between upper and lower levels in organizations. Thus, responses from elite interviewees must be framed properly to understand the value of their observations and contributions. Dexter, L. A. (1970). Elite and specialized interviewing. Evanston, ILL: Northwestern University Press. Hertz, R., & Imber, J. B. (Eds.). (1995). Studying elites using qualitative methodology. Newbury park, CA: Sage. |
The true source is not given. There is no reference for Hirsch 1995 given in Philbin 2005, only Hertz & Imber 1995. |
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| [Thus, responses from elite] interviewees must be framed properly to understand the value of their observations and contributions.
Useem (1995) favored interviewing chief executive officers because of the insight they offer into a company’s culture, organization, and activity. In addition to understanding more about executives, researchers also gain executives’ perspectives on their firm and the world at large. Useem observed in his research that elites tend to see both the small picture as well as the concerns of the larger business community. Because of the difficulty in reaching executives, Useem (1995) provided an array of considerations from his experience when trying to gain access to senior executives. One recommendation was to identify someone of import to the executive to act as a door opener. On the other hand, not all researchers appear to agree on whether access is a problem. Ostrander (1993) argued that the problems of gaining access and establishing rapport with elites have been overstated. Once researchers gain access, Hirsch (1995) suggested, it is imperative to prepare well for the interview—relying simply on street smarts can result in wasting the researchers’ efforts and, more importantly, elites’ time. Ostrander (1993) observed that elites are used to being in charge and having others defer to them. This notion must be carefully, but tactfully, challenged. Because of the deference that elites may be accustomed to, skepticism must be part of the interviewer’s questioning. Useem (1995) recognized that some managers know how they do something but not why. Therefore, researchers must guard against assimilation into the culture to the point that objectivity is lost. Paradigms must be challenged and confirmed throughout the process. In addition to organizational issues, Useem noted that perceptions of events and phenomena are socially [constructed to some degree.] Hirsch, Paul M. 1995. Tales from the field: Learning from researchers’ accounts. In R. Hertz & J. B. Imber (Eds.). Studying elites using qualitative methods. (pp. 40-64). London: Sage Publications. Ostrander, S. A. (1993). "Surely you’re not in this just to be helpful": Access, rapport, and interviews in three studies of elites. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 22 (1): 7-27. Useem, M. (1984). The inner circle: Large corporations and the rise of business political activity in the U.S. and U.K. New York: Oxford University Press. |
[page 126]
Thus, responses from elite interviewees must be framed properly to understand the value of their observations and contributions. Useem (1995) favored interviewing chief executive officers because of the insight they offer into a company’s culture, organization, and activity. In addition to understanding more about executives, researchers also gain executives’ perspectives on their firm and the world at large. Useem observed in his research that elites tend to see both the small picture as well as the concerns of the larger business community. Because of the difficulty in reaching executives, Useem (1995) provided an array of considerations from his experience when trying to gain access to senior executives. One recommendation was to identify someone of import to the executive to act as a door opener. On the other hand, not all researchers appear to agree on whether access is a problem. Ostrander (1995) argued that the problems of gaining access and establishing rapport with elites have been overstated. Once researchers gain access, Hirsch (1995) suggested, it is imperative to prepare well for the interview—relying simply on street smarts can result in wasting the researchers’ efforts and, more importantly, elites’ time. Ostrander (1995) [page 127] observed that elites are used to being in charge and having others defer to them. This notion must be carefully, but tactfully, challenged. Because of the deference that elites may be accustomed to, skepticism must be part of the interviewer’s questioning. Useem (1995) recognized that some managers know how they do something but not why. Therefore, researchers must guard against assimilation into the culture to the point that objectivity is lost. Paradigms must be challenged and confirmed throughout the process. In addition to organizational issues, Useem noted that perceptions of events and phenomena are socially constructed to some degree. Hertz, R., & Imber, J. B. (Eds.). (1995). Studying elites using qualitative methodology. Newbury park, CA: Sage. Useem, M. (1984). The inner circle: Large corporations and the rise of business political activity in the U.S. and U.K. New York: Oxford University Press. |
The true source is not given. Neither Ostrander 1995 nor Hirsch 1995 are given in the reference section of Philbin 2005. Only Hertz & Imber 1995 is listed. |
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| [In addition to organizational issues, Useem noted that perceptions of events and phenomena are socially] constructed to some degree. For example, chief executive officers frequently travel in circles of similar status. Thus, these elites often possess their own sense of reinforcing culture.
C.4. Active Interview Holstein and Gubrium (1995) argued that knowledge is created by the action necessary to acquire it. In contrast to the traditional role of passive interviewers who merely record information, active interviews recognize the constructionist process of producing meaning. One of the primary objectives of active interviews is to draw out and make visible the linkages and horizons participants use to define and organize subjective meanings. Holstein and Gubrium noted that the goal is to arrive at common narrative ground in the face of contextual issues and complicated matters. Active interviews assume that there is a mental model of the subject or phenomenon that lies beneath the responses of persons being interviewed. The challenge for researchers is to adequately represent the phenomenon that the interviewee may be [revealing, which may require several interviews and collaborative interpretation to capture the information.] Holstein, J. A., & Gubrium, J. F. (1995). The active interview. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Useem, M. (1984). The inner circle: Large corporations and the rise of business political activity in the U.S. and U.K. New York: Oxford University Press. |
[page 127]
In addition to organizational issues, Useem noted that perceptions of events and phenomena are socially constructed to some degree. For example, chief executive officers frequently travel in circles of similar status. Thus, these elites often possess their own sense of reinforcing culture. Useem (1995) provided practical advice for consideration in using elite interviews as a research approach. First, reaching top management may require direct contact. Second, flexibility is critical because of the demands placed on elites. Third, several research approaches may be necessary to obtain the information desired. Fourth, the researcher must remain disciplined and focused to the research at hand because interviews with elites frequently result in more research possibilities. Finally, the researcher must record those additional possibilities that often provide a framework for further study. Active interview Holstein and Gubrium (1995) argued that knowledge is created by the action necessary to acquire it. In contrast to the traditional role of passive interviewers who merely record information, active interviews recognize the constructionist process of [page 128] producing meaning. One of the primary objectives of active interviews is to draw out and make visible the linkages and horizons participants use to define and organize subjective meanings. Holstein and Gubrium noted that the goal is to arrive at common narrative ground in the face of contextual issues and complicated matters. Active interviews assume that there is a mental model of the subject or phenomenon that lies beneath the responses of persons being interviewed. The challenge for researchers is to adequately represent the phenomenon that the interviewee may be revealing, which may require several interviews and collaborative interpretation to capture the information. Holstein, J. A., & Gubrium, J. F. (1995). The active interview. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Useem, M. (1984). The inner circle: Large corporations and the rise of business political activity in the U.S. and U.K. New York: Oxford University Press. |
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| [The challenge for researchers is to adequately represent the phenomenon that the interviewee may be] revealing, which may require several interviews and collaborative interpretation to capture the information. Based on this assumption, several items are of concern. One of the greatest challenges to this approach is for researchers to create an environment that is conducive to open and undistorted communication. Rapport between researchers and participants is critical to the success of this approach.
Interviewees must be competent about the subject of the research in order for the information to be of value. Because participants continually revise and modify answers, the truth-value of responses must be measured not against some objective answer as in the traditional “vessel of answers” approach, but by the enduring local conditions that evolve. Introductions to the interview must be carefully prepared and delivered to avoid predisposing participants to a set of desired responses. In addition, culture and ethnographic considerations are important to framing questions. Researchers must necessarily and continually challenge themselves through self-analysis to guard against bias. Active interviews allow for researchers to explore ill-defined and marginally developed concepts. With the focus on linkages and horizons, researchers can seek out the model behind the vessel to better understand a phenomenon. This approach has the potential to produce a large quantity of data. In addition, this type of research can be done with little expense. Active interviews deny the philosophical notion of objectivity. Though some might view this as a weakness, many argue this approach strikes closer to the truth than traditional interviewing. One of the most important ethical considerations in using the active interview is selection of participants. By conceiving of people in particular ways, researchers give voice to some while silencing others. Thus, understanding the culture and knowing the [terrain is tremendously valuable.] |
[page 128]
The challenge for researchers is to adequately represent the phenomenon that the interviewee may be revealing, which may require several interviews and collaborative interpretation to capture the information. Based on this assumption, several items are of concern. One of the greatest challenges to this approach is for researchers to create an environment that is conducive to open and undistorted communication. Rapport between researchers and participants is critical to the success of this approach. Interviewees must be competent about the subject of the research in order for the information to be of value. Because participants continually revise and modify answers, the truth-value of responses must be measured not against some objective answer as in the traditional “vessel of answers” approach, but by the enduring local conditions that evolve. Introductions to the interview must be carefully prepared and delivered to avoid predisposing participants to a set of desired responses. In addition, culture and ethnographic considerations are important to framing questions. Researchers must necessarily and continually challenge themselves through self-analysis to guard against bias. Active interviews allow for researchers to explore ill defined and marginally developed concepts. With the focus on linkages and horizons, researchers can seek [page 129] out the model behind the vessel to better understand a phenomenon. This approach has the potential to produce a large quantity of data. In addition, this type of research can be done with little expense. Active interviews deny the philosophical notion of objectivity. Though some might view this as a weakness, many argue this approach strikes closer to the truth than traditional interviewing. One of the most important ethical considerations in using the active interview is selection of participants. By conceiving of people in particular ways, researchers give voice to some while silencing others. Thus, understanding the culture and knowing the terrain is tremendously valuable. |
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| [Thus, understanding the culture and knowing the] terrain is tremendously valuable. Like other approaches, similar issues of disclosure and confidentiality are important as well. Maintaining professional relationships with participants serves several purposes. It keeps clear the line between interviewers and interviewees. This approach also avoids placing either participant in an advantageous position.
C.5. Summary of Research Schema Given what the literature has revealed about the various types of interviews, the following matrix was established which helped guide the selection of the in-depth interview as the appropriate methodology. Decision Matrix for Qualitative Methodological Approach
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[page 129]
Thus, understanding the culture and knowing the terrain is tremendously valuable. Like other approaches, similar issues of disclosure and confidentiality are important as well. Maintaining professional relationships with participants serves several purposes. It keeps clear the line between interviewers and interviewees. This approach also avoids placing either participant in an advantageous position. Summary of Research Schema Given what the literature has revealed about the various types of interviews, the following matrix was established which helped guide the selection of the active interview as the appropriate methodology. [page 130] Decision Matrix for Qualitative Methodological Approach
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The source is not given. Philbin 2005 mixes up capital and small letters X, Dsi only uses capitals. The tables differ in the column "Limited Time and Money": Philbin 2005 places the x at "Active Interview", Dsi at "In-depth Interview". |
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| This project presented minimal risks to participants. The potential risks and benefits were explained to all interview participants prior to their participation in the project. There was no foreseeable harm to participants. Standard methods to protect privacy were adhered to. [To protect the respondents’ confidentiality, none of their names or the names of their workplace was used throughout the results and discussion sections.]
E. Analytical Techniques and Approach According to Miles and Huberman (1994), qualitative data analysis should be as easy to replicate as quantitative data analysis. Citing the difficulty in using original field notes to arrive at similar conclusions, they suggested an interactive model for data analysis. This model consisted of three subprocesses of data analysis: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing or verification. In Miles and Huberman’s (1994) view, data reduction subprocesses actually commence before data are collected. Data collection may come from a variety of sources such as interviews, documents, field notes from observations, and surveys. By considering how data are to be reduced, the researcher is guided toward certain types of data collection methods. Marshall and Rossman (1995) made a similar observation about the critical link between data collection and data analysis. They noted that Schatzman and Strauss (1973) recognized this relationship when they argued that because qualitative data are complex, researchers must analyze as data are collected and adjust collection strategies toward those data most critical to understanding the phenomenon of interest. Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
[page 140]
This project presented minimal risks to participants. The potential risks and benefits were explained to all interview participants prior to their participation in the project. There was no foreseeable harm to participants. Standard methods to protect privacy were adhered to. The identities of the participants and their affiliations were protected and remain confidential [sic] [page 141]
Huberman and Miles (1994) argued that qualitative data analysis should be as easy to replicate as quantitative data analysis. Citing the difficulty in using original field notes to arrive at similar conclusions, they suggested an interactive model for data analysis. This model called for three subprocesses of data analysis: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing or verification. In Miles and Huberman’s (1994) view, data reduction subprocesses actually commence before data are collected. Data collection may come from a variety of sources such as interviews, documents, field notes from observations, and surveys. By considering how data are to be reduced, the researcher is guided toward certain types of data collection methods. Marshall and Rossman (1995) made a similar observation about the critical link between data collection and data analysis. They noted that Schatzman and Strauss (1973) recognized this relationship when they argued that because qualitative data are complex, researchers must analyze as data are collected and adjust collection strategies toward those data most critical to understanding the phenomenon of interest. Huberman, A. M., & Miles, A. B. (1994). Data management and analysis methods. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 428-444). London: Sage. Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
The true source is not given. Dsi does not list Schatzman & Strauss 1973 in the references. There are two different references in the source, Huberman & Miles 1994 and Miles & Huberman 1994. These are conflated to just Miles & Huberman 1994 in this fragment of Dsi. The source is interwoven with text from another source, see Dsi/Fragment 181 01. |
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| Miles and Huberman (1994) suggested numerous analytical techniques. As discussed earlier, contact summary sheets, which represent a one-page synopsis of questions that researchers use to develop summaries of field contacts, were used for this research. In addition, document summary forms were used to help clarify and understand the importance of documents collected during fieldwork. Although contact summary sheets and document summary forms were used, they were not coded. However, the interview transcripts were coded for retrieval and analysis.
Codes represent meaning of the actual words and can be descriptive, interpretive, or patterned. In this study, the researcher sought to understand whether there were patterns that revealed themselves through the interviews. Clear operational definitions are imperative for codes to reduce ambiguity and inconsistency and to facilitate analysis. Coding schemes actually represent what Miles and Huberman referred to as a conceptual web. Miles and Huberman (1994) noted that reflective remarks represent what researchers think about as they record raw field notes. Such reflections might include new hypotheses, questioning existing data, or elaboration of prior information thought to be irrelevant and included in parentheses. Marginal remarks, on the other hand, are included in margins and help clarify and add meaning to field notes. In addition, colleagues and critics can provide marginal remarks to help researchers examine alternative explanations. Pattern coding was used in this research to help group emergent or inferential themes. Pattern coding reduced large amounts of data into smaller units, facilitated analysis during collection, and assisted in clarifying the conceptual map. According to [Miles and Huberman (1994), pattern codes typically focus around themes, causes, personal relationships, and theoretical constructs.] Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
[page 141]
Miles and Huberman (1994) suggested numerous analytical techniques. As discussed earlier, contact summary sheets, which represent a one-page synopsis of questions that researchers use to develop summaries of field contacts, were used for this research. In addition, document summary forms were used to help clarify and [page 142] understand the importance of documents collected during fieldwork. Although contact summary sheets and document summary forms were used, they were not coded. However, the interview transcripts were coded for retrieval and analysis. Codes represent meaning of the actual words and can be descriptive, interpretive, or patterned. In this study, I sought to understand whether there were patterns that revealed themselves through the interviews and documents. Clear operational definitions are imperative for codes to reduce ambiguity and inconsistency and to facilitate analysis. Coding schemes actually represent what Miles and Huberman referred to as a conceptual web. Miles and Huberman (1994) noted that reflective remarks represent what researchers think about as they record raw field notes. Such reflections might include new hypotheses, questioning existing data, or elaboration of prior information thought to be irrelevant and included in parentheses. Marginal remarks, on the other hand, are included in margins and help clarify and add meaning to field notes. In addition, colleagues and critics can provide marginal remarks to help researchers examine alternative explanations. Pattern coding was used in this research to help group emergent or inferential themes. Pattern coding reduced large amounts of data into smaller units, facilitated analysis during collection, and assisted in clarifying the conceptual map. According to Miles and Huberman (1994), pattern codes typically focus around themes, causes, personal relationships, and theoretical constructs. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
The true source is not given. |
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| [According to] Miles and Huberman (1994), pattern codes typically focus around themes, causes, personal relationships, and theoretical constructs.
Marshall and Rossman (1995) argued that analysis is complete only after critical categories are defined and relationships of categories are established. They observed that five modes govern analytic procedures. These include organizing data; establishing categories, themes, or patterns; testing hypotheses against the data; considering alternative paradigms; and writing the report. Miles and Huberman (1994), in positing the second subprocess of data display, made clear the centrality of this concept to identifying the linkages and patterns that emerge from the data. Data displays that are focused, co-located, and complete allow users to draw conclusions. These data displays represent the distillation of raw data and, if done adequately, improve confidence in the findings through various levels of abstraction. For example, Miles and Huberman offered contact summary forms and reports of case analysis meetings as examples to consider for data displays. Data displays can take two general formats: matrices that have defined cells and networks that have links between the various nodes. Data entries can take many forms depending on what researchers are trying to understand. Examples include text, quotes, and ratings. Miles and Huberman (1994) said it is important to note that “the creation and use of displays is not separate from analysis, it is part of the analysis” (p. 11). Data displays help validate qualitative analyses because they provide the framework from which conclusions may be drawn. Miles and Huberman (1994) offered some “rules of thumb” for such matrix displays. For example, for this research, the partitions are based on observations about [decision events as perceived by participants and are more descriptive in nature than explanatory.] Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
[page 142]
According to Miles and Huberman (1994), pattern codes typically focus around themes, causes, personal relationships, and theoretical constructs. Marshall and Rossman (1995) argued that analysis is complete only after critical categories are defined and relationships of categories are established. They [page 143] observed that five modes govern analytic procedures. These include organizing data; establishing categories, themes, or patterns; testing hypotheses against the data; considering alternative paradigms; and writing the report. Miles and Huberman (1994), in positing the second subprocess of data display, made clear the centrality of this concept to identifying the linkages and patterns that emerge from the data. Data displays that are focused, co-located, and complete allow users to draw conclusions. These data displays represent the distillation of raw data and, if done adequately, improve confidence in the findings through various levels of abstraction. For example, Miles and Huberman offered contact summary forms and reports of case analysis meetings as examples to consider for data displays. Data displays can take two general formats: matrices that have defined cells and networks that have links between the various nodes. Data entries can take many forms depending on what researchers are trying to understand. Examples include text, quotes, and ratings. Miles and Huberman (1994) said it is important to note that “the creation and use of displays is not separate from analysis, it is part of the analysis” (p. 11). Data displays help validate qualitative analyses because they provide the framework from which conclusions may be drawn. [...] [page 144] Miles and Huberman (1994) offered some “rules of thumb” for such matrix displays. For example, for this research, the partitions are based on observations about decision events as perceived by participants and are more descriptive in nature than explanatory. Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
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| [For example, for this research, the partitions are based on observations about] decision events as perceived by participants and are more descriptive in nature than explanatory. Miles and Huberman also noted that ordering, sequencing and categorization were also considerations (p. 240). Of critical import, Miles and Huberman noted that “the conclusions drawn from a matrix can never be better than the quality of the data entered”(p. 241). [sic]
E.1. Data Analysis There were essential two steps to the data analysis that were based on the analytic techniques of Huberman and Miles (1994), Miles and Huberman (1994) and Marshall and Rossman (1995). Following the collection of the data, the first step in the data analysis process consisted of data reduction. This process consisted of transcribing the interviews, recording and reviewing field notes, and clarifying the data by conducting additional interviews with the participants. As indicated, each interview was digitally and audio recorded and transcribed. The audio data were compared with field notes to underscore areas perceived to have special relevance to the participants, which the researcher inferred from emphasis made during the interviews. The annotated transcriptions with marginal notes and questions were provided to each of the participants for clarification. The revised transcriptions with clarifying comments were then compiled for the second phase of the data analysis—interpretation analysis. The interpretive analysis, which was the second step of the analysis, had several components. First, transcriptions based upon in-depth interviews with public relations practitioners were examined. Notes were made in the margins where the researcher had questions about comments made by participants that required clarification. Huberman, A. M., & Miles, A. B. (1994). Data management and analysis methods. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 428-444). London: Sage. Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
[page 144]
For example, for this research, the partitions are based on observations about decision events as perceived by participants and are more descriptive in nature than explanatory. Miles and Huberman also noted that ordering, sequencing and categorization were also considerations (p. 240). Of critical import, Miles and Huberman noted that “the conclusions drawn from a matrix can never be better than the quality of the data entered”(p. 241). [sic] Data Analysis There were essential two steps to the data analysis that were based on the analytic techniques of Huberman and Miles (1994), Miles and Huberman (1994) and Marshall and Rossman (1995). Following the collection of the data, the first step in the data analysis process consisted of data reduction. This process consisted of transcribing the interviews, recording and reviewing field notes, and clarifying the data by conducting additional interviews with the participants. As indicated, each interview was digitally and audio recorded and personally transcribed. Personally transcribing the interviews allowed me to remain close to the data and compare the [page 145] audio with field notes to underscore areas perceived to have special relevance to the participants, which I inferred from emphasis made during the interviews. The annotated transcriptions with marginal notes and questions were provided to each of the participants for clarification during subsequent interviews. The revised transcriptions with clarifying comments were then compiled for the second phase of the data analysis—interpretation analysis. The interpretive analysis, which was the second step of the analysis, had several components. First, edited transcriptions based upon active interviews with senior executives were examined. As indicated, notes were made in the margins where I had questions about comments made by participants that required clarification. Huberman, A. M., & Miles, A. B. (1994). Data management and analysis methods. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 428-444). London: Sage. Marshal [sic], C., & Rossman, G. B. (1995). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
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| [The edited] transcripts were then used as the basis for contact summary sheets, which facilitated identifying relevant issues, common patterns or similar themes or categories. The researcher initially examined the data to develop the recurrent themes, patterns, and categories. By using an interactive model of data display, which included tables of “cut and pasted” lists and matrices, the researcher established loosely connected relationships among the various themes, patterns, and categories. | [page 145]
The edited transcripts were then used as the basis for contact summary sheets, which facilitated identifying relevant issues, common patterns or similar themes or categories. I initially examined the data in each decision event to develop the recurrent themes, patterns, and categories. [...] [page 146] By using an interactive model of data display, which included tables of “cut and pasted” lists and two-by-two matrices, I established loosely-connected relationships among the various themes, patterns, and categories. |
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