Angaben zur Quelle [Bearbeiten]
| Autor | Lisa Cameron |
| Titel | Women and the Labour Market during and after the Crisis |
| Sammlung | Women in Indonesia: Gender, Equity and Development |
| Herausgeber | Kathryn Robinson / Sharon Bessell |
| Ort | Singapore |
| Verlag | Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |
| Jahr | 2002 |
| Seiten | 144-157 |
| URL | https://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/publication/255 ; https://books.google.de/books?id=jUOYUTPXkhwC&pg=PA144#v=onepage&q&f=false |
Literaturverz. |
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| Fußnoten | yes |
| Fragmente | 8 |
| [1.] Dsi/Fragment 130 04 - Diskussion Zuletzt bearbeitet: 2022-12-25 14:39:51 WiseWoman | BauernOpfer, Cameron 2002, Dsi, Fragment, Gesichtet, SMWFragment, Schutzlevel sysop |
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| Untersuchte Arbeit: Seite: 130, Zeilen: 4 ff. |
Quelle: Cameron 2002 Seite(n): 144, 145, 146, 156, Zeilen: 144: 4-6; 145: 19ff; 146: 1ff; 156: NOTES |
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| C. Labor Force Participation
This section explains the labor market experiences of Indonesian women, especially during and after the financial crisis in 1997. Specifically, it describes in what way women’s experiences have differed from men’s experiences. Preceding studies of the labor market impact of the financial crisis that occurred in Indonesia, and the rest of Asia, since 1997 have shown that because of the large decreases in real labor income, labor force participation increased between 1997 and 1999, and that women’s labor market participation increased to a bigger magnitude than men’s (Sigit & Surbakti, 1999; Gilligan et al., 2003 [sic]). The national figures demonstrate a rather small increase in participation for both women and men between 1997 and 1999, of 1.5 and 1.4 percentage points respectively. This translates into an addition of approximately two million people to the workforce over this period. Urban areas, more specifically in Java, were more severely affected because of their strong formal labor market. The low value of the Rupiah led to chaos, which resulted in various lay-offs in the financial sector, the construction sector, and the formal manufacturing sector. On the other hand, the export-oriented agricultural sector profited from its increased competitive advantage, and some rural areas, particularly in the outer islands, also profited from the ‘crisis.’ Even though the crisis may not have had a direct unfavorable effect on rural [areas, it did have an indirect effect through the return of villagers who had been laid off in the cities, and also through the massive increase of prices (Cameron, 2002).] Cameron, L. (2002). Women and the labour market during and after the crisis. In Kathryn Robinson & Sharon Bessell (Eds.), Women in Indonesia: Gender, equity and development [sic] (pp. 144-157). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Gilligan, D., Jacoby, H., & Quizon, J. (2000). The effects of the Indonesian economic crisis on Agricultural [sic] households: Evidence from the National Farmers Household Panel Survey (PATANAS). Unpublished paper, Center for Agro-socioeconomic Research, Bogor, and World Bank, Washington, D.C. Sigit, H., & Surbakti, S. (1999, June). Social impact of the economic crisis in Indonesia. Paper presented to the conference on Assessing the Social Impact of the Financial Crisis in Selected Asian Developing Economies, ADB Auditorium, Manila. |
[page 144]
This chapter seeks to examine the labour market experiences of Indonesian women during and since the financial crisis. In particular, it seeks to investigate in what way women’s experiences have differed from men's. [page 145] CRISIS IMPACT Labour Force Participation Previous studies of the labour market impact of the crisis have shown that in response to the large decreases in real labour income, labour force participation increased between 1997 and 1999, and that women's labour market participation increased to a greater extent than men’s (Sigit and Surbakti 1999; Gilligan et al. 2000).3 Table 12.1 presents the labour force participation rates of men and women from 1996 to 2000.4 The national figures show a smallish increase in participation for both women and men between 1997 and 1999, of 1.5 and 1.4 percentage points respectively. This translates into an addition of about two million people to the workforce over this period. Previous studies of the impact of the crisis have established that it varied widely across regions, and hence it is important to disaggregate the data. Urban areas, particularly in Java, were more severely affected because of their strong formal labour market. The low value of the rupiah caused mayhem, resulting in many lay-offs in the financial sector (where foreign currency-denominated loans ballooned in rupiah terms), the construction sector (particularly in Jakarta, where businesses put large-scale construction on hold) and the formal manufacturing sector (which relied heavily on imported inputs). In contrast, the export-oriented agricultural sector benefited from its enhanced competitive advantage, and some [page 146] rural areas, particularly in the Outer Islands, also benefited from the ‘crisis'. Although the crisis may not have had a direct adverse impact on rural areas, it did have an indirect impact through the return of villagers who had been laid off in the cities, and through price increases. [page 156] 3 The labour force participation rate is defined as the percentage of the population currently working or looking for work. 4 All calculations are for individuals aged at least 15 years. Other studies have examined the impact of the crisis on child labour and found that it decreased over the crisis period. See Cameron (2001). Cameron, Lisa A. (2001), 'The Impact of the Indonesian Financial Crisis on Children: An Analysis Using the 100 Villages Data', Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 37 (1), pp. 43-64. Gilligan, D., H. Jacoby and J. Quizon (2000), The Effects of the Indonesian Economic Crisis on Agricultural Households: Evidence from the National Fanners Household Panel Survey (PATANAS), unpublished paper. Center for Agro-socioeconomic Research, Bogor, and World Bank , Washington DC. Sigit, H. and S. Surbakti (1999), 'Social Impact of the Economic Crisis in Indonesia ', Paper prepared for the conference on 'Assessing the Social Impact of the Financial Crisis in Selected Asian Developing Economies', ADB Auditorium, Manila, 17-18 June. |
The source is given on the following page, but it is not made clear how close this text is to the source. |
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| [2.] Dsi/Fragment 131 01 - Diskussion Zuletzt bearbeitet: 2022-12-26 12:21:12 WiseWoman | BauernOpfer, Cameron 2002, Dsi, Fragment, Gesichtet, SMWFragment, Schutzlevel sysop |
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| [Even though the crisis may not have had a direct unfavorable effect on rural] areas, it did have an indirect effect through the return of villagers who had been laid off in the cities, and also through the massive increase of prices (Cameron, 2002).
Obviously, the financial crisis increased unemployment. The number of unemployed increased more noticeably among men than among women. Prior to the financial crisis, unemployment was highest among women. During the crisis, male unemployment in urban Java increased from 7.6 percent in 1997 to a high of 11.4 percent in 1999. Female unemployment also increased, but by a smaller 1.9 percent. By 1999, male unemployment rates were higher than female employment rates in Java, although still lower nationally (Cameron, 2002). In industries where women and men work side by side, gender-biased retrenchments can result in the women being forced into unemployment. For instance, women were widely laid off before men in Korea during the crisis. However, Oey-Gardiner and Dharmaputra (1998) report that there is little evidence of this happening in Indonesia. Nevertheless, women may have been retained because they are usually paid significantly less than men, and this offers companies cost savings. The government was largely criticized because of the fact that its public works programs were originally not open to women. In reaction to this criticism, at least 20 percent of new jobs under these programs were to be allocated to women, but even though these programs are now theoretically open to women, their emphasis on manual labor serves as an understood barrier to women’s involvement (Cameron, 2002). Cameron, L. (2002). Women and the labour market during and after the crisis. In Kathryn Robinson & Sharon Bessell (Eds.), Women in Indonesia: Gender, equity and development [sic] (pp. 144-157). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. |
[page 146]
Although the crisis may not have had a direct adverse impact on rural areas, it did have an indirect impact through the return of villagers who had been laid off in the cities, and through price increases. [page 147] The figures presented in Table 12.2 clearly indicate that the crisis increased unemployment, and that unemployment rose more markedly among men than among women. This is true for both urban and rural areas, in and outside Java, but is most clearly seen in urban Java (Figure 12.1). Male unemployment in urban Java increased by 3.8 percentage points from 7.6 percent in 1997 to a high of 11.4 per cent in 1999. Female unemployment also increased, but by a smaller 1.9 percentage points. Before the crisis, unemployment was highest among women. By 1999, male unemployment rates were higher than female unemployment rates in Java, although still lower nationally. [...] In industries where women and men work side by side, gender-biased [page 148] retrenchments can result in women bearing the brunt of unemployment. For instance, women were widely laid off before men in Korea during the crisis. However. Oey-Gardiner and Dharmaputra (1998) report that there is little evidence of this having occurred in Indonesia. [...] Women may have been kept on because they are often paid significantly less than men and so offer firms cost savings. The government was criticised over the fact that its public works programs (padat karya) were originally not open to women. In response to the criticism at [page 149] least 20 per cent of new jobs under these programs were to be allocated to women (which still results in an underrepresentation of women relative to the number of women unemployed).8 Although these programs are now theoretically open to women, their focus on manual labour acts as an implicit barrier to women's involvement. [page 157] 8 In 1998, 34 per cent of unemployed were women. Oey-Gardiner, M. and N. Dharmaputra (1998), The Impact of the Economic Crisis on Women Workers in Indonesia: Social and Gender Dimensions, unpublished paper prepared for the AIT/ILO Research Project on the Gender Impact of the Economic Crisis in Southeast and East Asia. Insan Hitawasana Sejahtera, Jakarta. |
The source is given, but it is not made clear how close the texts are. There is no Oey-Gardiner and Dharmaputra 1998 in the references of Dsi. |
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| [3.] Dsi/Fragment 147 14 - Diskussion Zuletzt bearbeitet: 2022-12-26 13:24:46 WiseWoman | Cameron 2002, Dsi, Fragment, Gesichtet, SMWFragment, Schutzlevel sysop, Verschleierung |
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| Untersuchte Arbeit: Seite: 147, Zeilen: 14-23 |
Quelle: Cameron 2002 Seite(n): 155, 156, Zeilen: 155: last paragraph; 156: 4 ff. |
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| Women were sheltered somewhat from the full economic crisis impact due to their under-representation in the formal sector of the economy. Women did, however, suffer increases in unemployment (and underemployment) – although to a lesser extent than men. Possibly the main way in which women were affected by the crisis was indirectly – through its effects on labor market opportunities for the men in their families. In response to high male unemployment and underemployment, women increased their participation in the labor market. Trends suggest that as the economy continues its recovery, the relative labor market positions of men and women are likely to return to their pre-crisis positions. Male wages have already increased relative to women’s such that the wage gap is now greater than before the crisis. Although labor demand has [picked up, there has not yet been a strong reemergence of the formal sector. In urban areas women have gained relative to men in terms of their share of wage employment, whereas in rural areas they seem to have been displaced from the formal sector.] | [page 155]
CONCLUSION In summary, women were sheltered somewhat from the full crisis impact due to their underrepresentation in the formal sector of the economy. Women did, however, suffer increases in unemployment (and underemployment) — although to a lesser extent than men. Possibly the main way in which women were affected by the crisis was indirectly — through its effect on labour market opportunities for the men in their families. In response to high male unemployment and underemployment, women increased their participation in the labour market. [page 156] These trends suggest that as the economy continues its recovery the relative labour market positions of men and women are likely to return to their pre-crisis positions. Male wages have already increased relative to women's such that the wage gap is now greater than before the crisis. Although labour demand has picked up, there has not yet been a strong re-emergence of the formal sector. In urban areas women have gained relative to men in terms of their share of wage employment, whereas in rural areas they seem to have been displaced from the formal sector. |
The source is not mentioned. |
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| [4.] Dsi/Fragment 148 01 - Diskussion Zuletzt bearbeitet: 2022-08-25 20:52:23 WiseWoman | Cameron 2002, Dsi, Fragment, Gesichtet, SMWFragment, Schutzlevel sysop, Verschleierung |
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| [Although labor demand has] picked up, there has not yet been a strong reemergence of the formal sector. In urban areas women have gained relative to men in terms of their share of wage employment, whereas in rural areas they seem to have been displaced from the formal sector.
Women went backward during the economic crisis in rural areas in terms of their share of wage employment. Whether women can hold on to the small gains they made relative to men in urban formal sector employment and make up the ground lost in rural areas remains to be seen. |
Although labour demand has picked up, there has not yet been a strong re-emergence of the formal sector. In urban areas women have gained relative to men in terms of their share of wage employment, whereas in rural areas they seem to have been displaced from the formal sector.
[...] Women went backwards during the crisis in rural areas in terms of their share of wage employment. Whether women can hold on to the small gains they made relative to men in urban formal sector employment and make up the ground lost in rural areas remains to be seen. |
The first two sentences are repeated verbatim in Chapter VII (CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION) |
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| Regarding the women’s labor force participation, women were sheltered somewhat from the full crisis impact due to their underrepresentation in the formal sector of the economy. Possibly the main way in which women were affected by the crisis was indirectly—through its effect on labor market opportunities for the men in their families. In response to high male unemployment and underemployment, women increased their participation in the labor market. To the extent that women were somewhat protected [form the crisis in the labor market, that protection resulted from their underrepresentation in the most lucrative sector—the formal sector—much in the same way that rural areas and the Outer Islands were protected by their lesser reliance on this sector.] | [page 155]
CONCLUSION In summary, women were sheltered somewhat from the full crisis impact due to their underrepresentation in the formal sector of the economy. Women did, however, suffer increases in unemployment (and underemployment) — although to a lesser extent than men. Possibly the main way in which women were affected by the crisis was indirectly — through its effect on labour market opportunities for the men in their families. In response to high male unemployment and underemployment, women increased their participation in the labour market. [page 156] To the extent that women were somewhat protected from the crisis in the labour market, that protection resulted from their underrepresentation in the most lucrative sector — the formal sector — much in the same way that rural areas and the Outer Islands were protected by their lesser reliance on this sector. |
The source is not given. |
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| [6.] Dsi/Fragment 176 01 - Diskussion Zuletzt bearbeitet: 2022-12-28 21:08:44 WiseWoman | Cameron 2002, Dsi, Fragment, Gesichtet, SMWFragment, Schutzlevel sysop, Verschleierung |
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| [To the extent that women were somewhat protected] form the crisis in the labor market, that protection resulted from their underrepresentation in the most lucrative sector—the formal sector—much in the same way that rural areas and the Outer Islands were protected by their lesser reliance on this sector. | To the extent that women were somewhat protected from the crisis in the labour market, that protection resulted from their underrepresentation in the most lucrative sector — the formal sector — much in the same way that rural areas and the Outer Islands were protected by their lesser reliance on this sector. |
The source is not given. |
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CONCLUSION
In summary, women were sheltered somewhat from the full crisis impact due to their underrepresentation in the formal sector of the economy. Women did, however, suffer increases in unemployment (and underemployment) — although to a lesser extent than men. Possibly the main way in which women were affected by the crisis was indirectly — through its effect on labour market opportunities for the men in their families. In response to high male unemployment and underemployment, women increased their participation in the labour market. |
The source is not given. The text is repeated from Dsi/Fragment 175 18 , and more closely follows the source. |
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| [8.] Dsi/Fragment 282 01 - Diskussion Zuletzt bearbeitet: 2022-12-26 13:39:33 WiseWoman | Cameron 2002, Dsi, Fragment, Gesichtet, SMWFragment, Schutzlevel sysop, Verschleierung |
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| • Although labor demand has picked up, there has not yet been a strong reemergence of the formal sector. In urban areas women have gained relative to men in terms of their share of wage employment, whereas in rural areas they seem to have been displaced from the formal sector. | Although labour demand has picked up, there has not yet been a strong re-emergence of the formal sector. In urban areas women have gained relative to men in terms of their share of wage employment, whereas in rural areas they seem to have been displaced from the formal sector. |
The source is not given. The text documented here is part of the final chapter VII (CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION) and repeats text from Dsi/Fragment 148 01 . |
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